The real ‘cost’ of tourism is its impact on tourist recipient sites and regions

The real ‘cost' of tourism is its impact on tourist recipient sites and regions. Using quantitative data, measure the costs and benefits of tourism on a site or destination of your choice, evaluating that cost in economic, social and environmental terms. Give examples and describe from your own knowledge tourist sites that have paid a price in social and cultural disruption, or in environmental pollution. In the light of your findings, address the question of whether tourism is an appropriate tool for national development. Tourism has become one of the key industries in affecting the state of the world economy, and is being adopted by many struggling countries as a tool for national development. By studying the costs and benefits of tourism on concerned countries, it is feasible to analyse its success as a strategy of development. As tourism is a relatively new industry and is growing so fast, the literature on the subject is continually expanding as more studies are carried out. The aim for this piece of work therefore, is to investigate the real ‘cost' of tourism on Jamaica. Studies into the subject and the country will be examined, extracting the costs and the benefits in economic, social and environmental terms. The data will then be analysed in a suitable way and compared to alternative methods so as to determine if tourism is an appropriate agent for national development in Jamaica. It is very important to establish a few definitions before continuing with the essay, so that the eventual aim can be measured. Firstly, what we understand by the word tourism. Basically, it means a temporary and voluntary movement of people to a destination of their choice for the fundamental purpose of pleasure. The duration can range from a few days to a whole year. Facts in 2000 showed that there were 700 million travellers per year, 62% of which was solely for leisure. Its importance for national economies is illustrated by the fact that for 83% of countries tourism is one of the five top export categories and the main one for 38% of them. 11 Finally, a more in depth consideration is necessary to determine the, â€Å"most slippery concept of all,† (Lea, 1988) that is the notion of development. The focus of this work is, ‘whether tourism is an appropriate tool for national development', thus it is essential to define development in order to establish whether the country is successful in achieving this developed state that it is striving for. Since the term ‘development' contains within it factors to a social, political and economic extent, it is impossible for one word to define absolutely the developmental condition of a country. The conceptual meaning of development has been re-defined for over a century and there is still no clear definition to it. It has progressed from being more environmental determined in the nineteenth century, to the theories of modernisation which were considered more important in the mid-twentieth century. The idea behind this was that the basis of development was to catch up with and copy the Western world. Karl Marx was a German philosopher and some of his theories have shaped the idea of development. He felt there was a strain in all societies because the social organization never kept pace with the development of the means of production. The thought was that as result of the capitalist system, there was a concentration and centralisation of capital and therefore an uneven development in the world. These ideas shaped the views on development during the 1960's. However, Andre Gunder Frank expanded this in his ‘Theory of Third World Dependency'. He felt that under-developed countries would only progress if they â€Å"disconnected from the global economy and pursued their own national strategies of import-substitution†. Advancement continued in the 1970's, with the previous theories being, â€Å"refined, revised and in many cases rejected,† (Corbridge, 1991). The World Development Report (1991) defines development as, â€Å"†¦a sustainable increase in living standards that encompass material consumption, education, health and environmental protection.† (p. 31). As you can see, it is currently being considered in a much broader sense. Other aspects also tend to be included, such as, â€Å"†¦more equality of opportunity, political freedom and civil liberties. The overall goal of development is therefore to increase the economic, political and civil rights of all people across gender, ethnic groups, religions, races, regions and countries.† (World Development Report, 1991, p.31) In short, the more recent definitions have less of a focus and encompass a wider range of social and environmental criteria, as well as economic. As a result, in order to determine whether Jamaica is progressing we will assume they strive to develop economically, socially and environmentally. So an ideal next step is to look at the impacts of tourism in those three terms. However, before that is done it is essential to create a better understanding of Jamaica itself as a country and as a tourist destination. Jamaica is an island, located in the northern Caribbean, approximately 145km south of Cuba and 160km west of Haiti, with a population of about 2.7 million people with Kingston as the capital and largest city. Most visitors head for the north coast, where the best beaches and hotels can be found. This is where the busy, lively resorts are, and the cruise ports of Montego Bay and Ocho Rios. There is also the tranquil, and much less touristy, Port Antonio, set amid some of the island's loveliest scenery and beaches. However, to find the most stunning beach you must head west to Negrill for one of the most relaxed resorts. The south on the other hand has a very different atmosphere and is scarcely touched by tourism as yet. The east is where the capital Kingston is found, a sprawling, noisy and dusty city with an impressive harbour set against a backdrop of mountains. The Jamaicans themselves, on the whole, are very proud of their island and so often help to make tourists enjoy it too. Are they right to be proud? We now look at how the Jamaican environment is affected by tourism both positively and negatively. â€Å"Balancing Jamaica's ecology and tourism is a precarious dance to an insistent reggae beat. Tourism generates even more foreign exchange for the country than the bauxite industry, creating jobs and a chance for a brighter future. But with tourism comes development, bringing pressures to local people and their environment.† (Wilson 1999)2 A great quote for illustrating the two sides that comes with tourism. The pressure on the environment and people can become a very large problem. Reports have indicated that the natural resource bases that support the island's tourism trade is heavily stressed around the three main tourist centers. The reports identify the following principal sources of environmental degradation: (a) inadequate sewage treatment and disposal facilities is causing deteriorating water quality and reef damage; (b) storm water discharge is transporting silt and pollutant into coastal waters; (c) shore line construction, dredging and reef damage have caused beach erosion; (d) deforestation due to inland agriculture and timber cutting is aggravating flood damage and siltation; and (e) coastal development is contributing to the destruction of the wetlands, important as fish nurseries and wildlife habitat and as buffers against water pollution and coastal erosion. This clearly demonstrates the widespread impacts of tourism. â€Å"The increasing number of tourists, with extremely high consumption habits, places a disproportionate strain on the local infrastructure.† This explains why country's struggle with the increased demand which can often be seasonal and so suddenly hit them during the holiday periods. Studies indicate that the average tourist ingests ten times as much water and produces three times as much solid waste as the average resident.3 Yet another large factor in the gradual deterioration of the environment. Although tourism does create jobs and opportunities for locals, which we will look at in more detail later, there is not enough housing for them all. This leads to squatter settlements lacking in basic infrastructure and frequently situated in environmentally vulnerable locations, which again strongly reflects a negative side of the ecology. Continuing with the same theme, the steady increase in hotel construction has led to the destruction of the Dune barrier along the sea shore. Several years ago Jamaica's beaches were lined by dunes of sand covered with vegetation. With this barrier no longer there, due to the increased stress of tourism, erosion of beaches has been vastly accelerated. Environmental statistics provided by the â€Å"Statistical Institute of Jamaica† can provide us with a clearer understanding of the environmental impacts of tourism. Figures on land use in 1989 and 1998 can be misleading and also suggest that less land is being used more recently. This depends on how you look at the results and there can be a number of reasons to explain this. Data on the use of built up land indicates that 8kmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ more land was used in 1989. If tourism is having a large impact on the environment you would expect more to being used in 1998. However, this difference may be due to a lot of previously useful land being turned into wasteland as a result of tourists, and so it can't even be built on. In support of this, the figures for land use for buildings are larger in 1998 but by just 4km. The stats on petroleum consumption do indicate that there is an increase in tourism and therefore consumption of materials. It shows that from 1991 to 1999 the average annual growth is 3.3%. With more and more petrol being used it is safe to assume that it is having a negative impact on the environment. The imports of ozone depleting substances from 1995-1999, are also very interesting and show a very significant increase: (Source: Statin, External Trade; NRCA) Although the facts are not necessarily contributed to tourism, it is fair to say that it has a large say in this dramatic increase. Especially with CFC's as these are found in aerosol cans etc. and the increase in tourists could be a large factor due to their consumption of such products. Also, Methyl Bromide is used to control crops so the lack of increase here could be because more plants are being destroyed. Another side to the ecology not yet looked at is the potential decline in biodiversity. This involves the plants and animals that inhabit Jamaica. A 20-year study by scientists showed that habitat destruction and introduction on non-native species have caused approximately 12.5 percent of the world's plants to now be so rare, they could easily disappear.4 Jamaica is faced with threats to its flora as well as fauna, where the percentage of threatened plants reaches 20 to 40. In order to be considered as â€Å"threatened†, a species must have reached the point at which there were fewer than 10,000 individuals worldwide, or fewer than 100 locations where it could be found. Jamaica is also attributed with highest local deforestation speed, a fact that would contradict the statistics seen earlier.5 However, as previously mentioned those stats are ambiguous as they say â€Å"forest use† but not what it's used for. It could be used as a forest or, in a completely opposite way, to build on. So is the environmental impact of tourism on Jamaica all bad? Not really. The extra finance brought in by tourists, which will be seen in more detail in the economical part later, can be used to help preserve and restore local attractions. Tourism also has the potential to increase public appreciation of the environment and to spread awareness of environmental problems when it brings people in to closer contact with nature and the environment. Also if a country, like Jamaica finds that a certain site is found particularly attractive by tourists then it will be in there interest to ensure it's beauty is preserved in order to maximise profit from it. Although the above named advantages are possible for Jamaica, unfortunately it is not always looked on by the government in this way. There were very few examples found where Jamaica was looking to significantly improve their environment as a result of tourism. Despite the fact that the surroundings are clearly being destroyed the emphasis, as I think will come out even more lately, is that Jamaica are willing to sacrifice the environment in an attempt to maximise their income. But is this an appropriate strategy? Do the advantages significantly outweigh the disadvantages? In an attempt to answer those questions it is essential to look at what tourism brings to the economy. The Jamaican GDP was measured at about J$5,034 million during 2002, and stats on visitor stays indicate a total expenditure of J$1,000 million through tourism. This suggests that the tourism industry accounted for about 20% of Jamaica's GDP in 2002. This is a substantial increase from 10 years previous when tourism accounted for just 13.3%,6 but it is still recovering after the impact of the September 11th, 2001 happenings in USA. Before the events in USA, tourism was highly influential in the success of the Jamaican economy but it suffered a decrease as people became more concerned about travelling. It is only now that the industry is starting to re-develop, and it is again becoming one of the most influential industries amongst insurance services and the manufacturing business. Tourism is clearly a huge industry with immense potential for any country to use as a tool for national development, particularly economic development. Unfortunately, the richer countries seem more able to benefit than the poorer ones, which can lead to a larger gap building between them. Although the following figures are slightly dated they help indicate the state of the Jamaican economy and we can infer its current state from these after knowing it has since grown after the large blip due to September 11th. Jamaica ranks twelfth in the Americas region in tourist arrivals and ninth in terms of tourism receipts. With 18,500 rooms at the end of 1992, it ranked second after the Dominican Republic, among the 32 small island nations that comprise the Caribbean, in terms of the size of the accommodation industry.7 The Jamaican Tourist Board (JTB) statistics show that in 1992 there were a total of 909,010 stopover visitors, 649,517 cruise passengers and 148,173 non-resident Jamaicans who visited the island. Of more recent figures on which to compare these too, in 2002 there were 865,419 cruise passengers and 87,283 non-resident Jamaican visits. So in 10 years a quite substantial increase in cruise passengers but a drop in amount of non-resident Jamaicans. Cruises are directly linked to tourism and are a good indicator of whether or not it is increasing in terms of more money coming in. Also, in 1992 the total average spent by a cruise passenger was US$52.8 So assuming that has not changed Jamaica is apparently bringing in an extra US$11,226,904 then it was 10 years ago. Obviously, that is a very simplistic way of looking at it and there are many other costs involved, however it helps provide an indication. A further indication of the sort of revenue generated through tourism is demonstrated in the following table: Direct Government Revenues From Tourism Sector 1992 (in J$ Millions) Source Value GCT 690.5 Airport Tax 211.6 Cruise Passenger Tax 119.4 Commodity Taxes 245.5 Indirect Taxes 90.0 PAYE 432.1 Total Direct Revenues 1789.1 (Source: Jamaican Tourist Board) Total direct revenue of 1,789,100 is a fairly significant figure especially for 1992 when we take into account this market has grown since. This is only considering the direct government revenues and suggests that tourism provides a very healthy profit for the country. Therefore, could potentially be a good tool for national development. In terms of tourism providing employment the figures in 1992 show that a total of 71,710 persons were employed by the Jamaican Tourism Industry, which amounted to about 8% of the total employed labour force. Tourists are always interested in souvenirs; this again provides jobs for locals and money for the community. However, the souvenirs have to be made out of something and can possibly cause a strain on materials within the environment. The findings so far on economic impacts of tourism indicate that it could be a very profitable industry for a country like Jamaica. However, we have already seen the vast amounts of negative impacts tourism can have on the environment. Can it too have negative impacts economically? Unfortunately for Jamaica and other third world countries the answer is yes. Leakages can have a very significant impact on the amount of money the recipient sites actually receive and can often be the reason why the third world countries are not as well off as they should be. The direct income for an area is the amount of tourist expenditure that remains locally after taxes, profits, and wages are paid outside the area and after imports are purchased; these subtracted amounts are called leakages. In most all-inclusive package tours, about 80% of travellers' expenditure goes to the airlines, hotels and other international companies and not to local businesses or workers.9 Leakages can occur in two main ways; import leakage and export leakage. An import leakage occurs when tourists demand a standard of products and services beyond which the host country can supply. Therefore, the country must import the product and so money leaves the host country to pay for such items. An export leakage occurs when large companies from more developed countries control hotels and tourist sites in Jamaica, for example, and bring the profits back to them. These larger companies have the finance, unlike local businesses, and can therefore dictate foreign sites. â€Å"In Fiji, for example, the leakage is more like a haemorrhage-with only 45 per cent of the tourist revenue actually staying in the country.† (Stalker 1998) This quote goes along way to summing up the extent to which these leakages contribute to the downfall of third world countries. Enclave tourism is another reason why countries like Jamaica do not receive the revenue they appear they should. When tourists go on all-inclusive holidays they may often stay in one place, e.g. a hotel or cruise ship, which can provide them with all they need. If so, the local shops and restaurants do not benefit from them as they do not come in contact with them. It could be said the tourists are getting and not giving in terms of they are admiring the beautiful weather and scenery without putting money back in to the local economy. Surveys show that such all-inclusive deals can have a very negative effect on the economy for a number of reasons. As they are often owned by companies in more developed countries, less money goes into local businesses. It has been found such deals generate the largest amount of revenue but their impact on the economy is smaller per dollar of revenue than other accommodation subsectors'. It is also concluded that all-inclusives imported more, and employed fewer people per dollar of revenue than other hotels. 10So again, further indication of a lose-lose situation for Jamaica, as there materials are being used with minimal in the way of revenue coming back in. It was mentioned earlier that tourism can help to provide job opportunities for locals. However, Gray (1974) sees tourism's use of a large proportion of unskilled labour as only a temporary phase in the development of the industry-as tourism grows, it may become more reliant on higher skilled labour, which will inherently mean training those available, or more commonly importing them from elsewhere. If the latter is the case then unemployment within the country will increase, so more people will be claiming benefits, which has a detrimental effect on the economy. In addition, the seasonal nature of tourist employment demands adequate earning and budgeting to ensure survival through low season. Myrdal's Model of Circular and Cumulative Causation (1957)11 explains economic development within a country as a natural process. He states that as an industry develops it experiences multiplier effects of improved linkages, communications, infrastructure and services, causing the developing zone to prosper. He also mentions the â€Å"backwash† disadvantage of the negative impact on the environment. In terms of Jamaica, it may be that as a result of tourism links such as infrastructure have advanced but maybe not necessarily improved. The increase in hotels and restaurants could appear as development but as we have seen the effect on the ecology is massive. The third way to analyse the impact of tourism is in terms of social impacts. â€Å"The social and cultural impacts are they way in which tourism alters behaviour, value systems, family, relationships, lifestyles and community organizations† (Mathieson & Wall, 1982).12 Tourism can be potentially beneficial to the tourist socially as it broadens their interests, triggering an improved understanding of the unknown and the cultures and lifestyles of others. â€Å"When a country opens doors to international tourism, its traditions (however marketable) are going to be changed, if not threatened.† (Harrison, 1992) This quote shows how when a country chooses tourism as a tool for national development they are confining the lives of their residents to be strongly influenced. This can be in a number of ways and traits from the Third World can be brought across. These may include crime, prostitution and gambling. A potential advantage often mentioned is the introduction of technology and more advanced thinking from the Third World. A thought one may question, as it is debatable whether the new technology is beneficial or does it just make the tourist site more similar to our own surroundings but set in a different place. As you can see most of the findings from research into the social impacts of tourism again suggest a detrimental effect. Although, there was limited data related to just Jamaica. It is clear tourism is a massive factor in the lifestyle of residents, as it can change their work patterns and deteriorate their living surroundings. This essay has focused just on the impacts of tourism on Jamaica, but this clearly goes on throughout the world, with different destinations being affected in different ways. These can be seen by looking at a few brief examples of how other tourist sites are impacted. In winter 2000, 76,271 people entered Yellowstone National Park on snowmobiles, outnumbering the 40,727 visitors who came in cars, 10,779 in snowcoaches and 512 on skis. A survey of snowmobile impacts on natural sounds at Yellowstone found that snowmobile noise could be heard 70% of the time at 11 of 13 sample sites, and 90% of the time at 8 sites. At the Old Faithful geyser, snowmobiles could be heard 100% of the time during the daytime period studied. Snowmobile noise drowned out even the sound of the geyser erupting. (Source: Idahonews) The Wider Caribbean Region, stretching from Florida to French Guiana, receives 63,000 port calls from ships each year, and they generate 82,000 tons of garbage. About 77% of all ship waste comes from cruise vessels. The average cruise ship carries 600 crew members and 1,400 passengers. On average, passengers on a cruise ship each account for 3.5 kilograms of garbage daily – compared with the 0.8 kilograms each generated by the less well-endowed folk on shore. (Source: Our Planet, UNEP magazine for environmentally sustainable development, volume 10, no. 3, 1999) Both the above findings demonstrate further the dramatic impact of tourism. So all this leaves is to address the question of whether tourism is an appropriate tool for national development? A key to answering this question is the definition of national development, as investigated earlier. If you consider the earliest definitions, which basically suggest that Third World Countries strive towards being similar to the Western World, then I believe that tourism is an appropriate tool for development. It is a guaranteed way of becoming more like the Western World in terms of technology and infrastructure. However, I also believe that this is not the best definition and that the latter ones are more valid. The World Development Report suggested the overall goal was to increase the economic, political and civil rights of all people across gender, ethnic groups, religions, races, regions and countries. So if this is taken as the basis when answering the question, then my answer would be different. Tourism clearly does not go along way to increasing the political and civil rights of the Jamaica residents for example. Tourism brings in â€Å"intruders† from other countries who intrude on their lives and remove a significant amount of identification the citizens may have. The government have to make the choice of whether they are willing to sacrifice the well being of their residents and state of their environment in order to maximise the profits from the industry. Unfortunately, this is often the case as the country need their economy to be strong, and there is no doubt that tourism has massive potential of bringing in revenue. The only other consideration the government should have would be to use the money to improve industries within their own country and work on trade as an alternative. The potential revenue may not be as high but I believe it is safe to say that the disadvantages would be hugely less. In conclusion, of the theorists mentioned earlier I would agree with Andre Gunder Frank, as I believe if countries like Jamaica want to succeed they should disconnect from the global economy and pursue their own national strategies of import-substitution.